Learn more about the mutiny in Force Publique as well as the two secessionist movements in Katanga and South Kasai. Join our JC History Tuition to explore case studies like the Congo Crisis to ace the GCE A Level History examinations.

Why did the Congo crisis happen?

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Topic of Study [For H2 History 9174 Students]: 
Paper 1: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000)
Section B: Essay Writing
Theme III Chapter 4: Intra-State Conflicts [Congo Crisis, 1960-1965]

Watch this illustrative video to grasp the historical significance of the Congo Crisis [Video by History House Productions]

Historical context: The decolonisation of Congo and the Mutiny
On 30 June 1960, Congo was no longer under the control of the former Belgian colonial power, achieving independence on this historic day. Less than a week later, Congolese forces in Force Publique mutinied against their Belgian commanders. The mutiny began in Thysville military base before spreading to the rest of the Congo Republic.

The mutineers made three demands: The removal of the Belgian commander in chief General Emil Janssens, the replacement of all Belgian officers by Congolese and raise in pay and rank.

Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba tried to end the mutiny but to no avail. He conducted a large-scale promotion, advancing every Congolese soldier by one grade.

The racial stratification that marked the pre-independence Congo clearly applied to the Force Publique. Whites controlled and composed the officer corps. The highest rank to which Africans could aspire was that of sergeant-major.

The Belgians, similar to other governing alien minorities, believed their rule best protected by compliant troops schooled in instant obedience, and by culturally homogenous commissioned officers sharing in full the assumptions and views of the dominant group. […]

The precipitating incident was General Emile Janssens’ proclamation to restive troops, “Before Independence = After Independence.”

An excerpt taken from the “Anatomy of Rebellion” by Claude E. Welch Jr. (1980).

Over time, violence spread to other parts of the Congo, prompting the departure of the Europeans. In response, the Belgian government deployed its troops to restore order and safeguard the well-being of its Belgian citizens. However, this move antagonised the Congolese central government as its leaders were not being consulted with.

Lumumba sent a plea to the United Nations in hopes of receiving operational support to pressure Belgium to withdraw its forces from the Congo.

On 14 July 1960, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 143, authorising the creation of a peacekeeping force known as Organisations des Nations Unies au Congo (ONUC, or UN Mission in the Congo).

The secession of Katanga
In addition to the problem of Belgian presence in the Congo, the nation had to contend with another serious issue: the secession of Katanga and South Kasai. On 11 July 1960, Kantaga declared its independence from the Congo Republic. A month later, the South Kasai province followed suit (9 August 1960).

Examine the illustrative map of the Congo Republic during the Congo Crisis in 1960-1963.
Map of the Congo Republic during the Congo Crisis in 1960-1963, featuring the provincial states of Katanga and South Kasai that launched secessionist movements [Map by Quickworld Inc.].

The Katanga province was known for its mineral-rich status, featuring minerals like copper, cobalt and uranium. The Belgian mining company Union Minière du Haut-Katanga (UMHK) conducted its mining operations in Katanga, enjoying an annual turnover of about $200 million in USD in 1960.

Even before independence, Katanga experienced growing separatist tendencies. The mutiny incident become a trigger to reverse the opposing stance by the Europeans that saw secession of Katanga as an opportunity to protect Belgian investment.

The province’s president, Moïse Tshombe, sought help from Belgium and other Western states to oppose the spread of communism in central Africa. Also, Belgian troops deployed in Katanga helped to maintain order within the province.

With independence, the Europeans in Elisabethville saw a chance to stem the tide of African independence and supported the secessionist government of Moïse Tshombe. Belgium as well would lend Tshombe’s rebel government unofficial support, as Katanga continued its mission of remaining separate from Congo-Léopoldville.

The Belgians would secretly fund the mercenary army that gave ONUC a run for their money; the possibility of losing control of UMHK and the numerous lucrative mines scattered across the province was an unattractive option for European interests in Katanga.

An excerpt taken from “Congo” by Sean Rorison (2008).

The secession of South Kasai
Between 1960 and 1962, the leader of the MNC-K party Albert Kalonji fought to secede South Kasai from the Republic of the Congo. Like Katanga, South Kasai received assistance from Belgium.

More importantly, the secession in South Kasai was influenced by the ethnic tensions between the Baluba community (represented by Kalonji’s MNC-K) and the Bena Lulua.

In this phase, Kalonji became President of the South Kasai province and Joseph Ngalula assumed the role of Prime Minister. Kalonji’s rule was bolstered by the Luba chiefs. He established a strong narrative that the secession was justified because of ethnic persecution and the inability of the Congolese central government to safeguard the interests of the Baluba people.

Join our JC History Tuition to learn more about the Congo Crisis under the theme of Conflict and Cooperation. The H2 and H1 History Tuition feature online discussion and writing practices to enhance your knowledge application skills. Get useful study notes and clarify your doubts on the subject with the tutor. You can also follow our Telegram Channel to get useful updates.

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Learn more about the military blockade of the Bosnian capital by Serb forces during the Bosnian War. Join our JC History Tuition to learn more about intra-state conflicts for H2 History A Level examination.

What Happened in the Siege of Sarajevo?

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Topic of Study [For H2 History 9174 Students]: 
Paper 1: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000)
Section B: Essay Writing
Theme III Chapter 4: Intra-State Conflicts [Bosnian War, 1992-1995]

Examine the historical significance of the siege to understand its implications on the Bosnian War. [Video by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]

Historical context: The Liberalisation of BiH
In February 1992, a ‘Referendum Weekend’ was scheduled as a requirement to recognise the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). While the Bosniaks and Croats supported the referendum, the Serbian Democratic Party (SDS) – led by Radovan Karadžić – boycotted said referendum. The SDS rallied the Bosnian Serbs to support its stance.

The SDS was against the referendum because it feared that independence of BiH would turn the Bosnian Serbs into a minority, violating their interests to remain part of Yugoslavia.

Of the three (communities), Bosniacs were the strongest proponents of a sovereign unitary state. While open to Bosnian sovereignty, Croats preferred cantonization. For their part, Serbs preferred for BiH to remain within the FRY; their second-best option revolved around the right of Serb areas to seek secession and rejoin the FRY. Not only did the three communities broadly disagree, Serbs considered the birth of independent BiH illegal because of the fact that the referendum on independence had gone ahead in spite of the boycott of one of the constituent people.

An excerpt taken from “When the Total is less than the Sum of the Parts: The Lessons of Bosnia and Herzegovina” by Marie-Joëlle Zaha.

Eventually, BiH declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) on 1 March 1992. On that same day, a shooting incident occurred.

The Baščaršija shooting incident
During a Bosnian Serb wedding procession in the Baščaršija district of Sarajevo, a Bosnian paramilitary member, Ramiz Delalic, killed the groom’s father and wounded an Orthodox priest. The attack sparked tensions over the display of Serbian national symbols during the wedding.

The Bosnian Serb community was outraged by the shooting, viewing the attack as a deliberate act of ethnic violence, giving rise to mobilisation and the setting up of barricades across Sarajevo. This incident highlighted the emergence of inter-ethnic violence.

According to a report by the CSCE, the blockade of the city ‘turned from spontaneous protests provoked by the wedding incident to an SDS-controlled effort’. Thus the barricades appeared not simply to ‘protect Serbs’ in the wake of the Baščaršija shooting but to demonstrate that the SDS would not accept lightly a declaration of independence in the event of a ‘yes’ vote.

An excerpt taken from “Reporting the Siege of Sarajevo” by Kenneth Morrison and Paul Lowe (2021).

The Siege
Bosnian Serb forces seized the capital city of Sarajevo, starting a four year-long brutal campaign that terrorised the citizens within. Sarajevo was under siege on 5 April 1992, trapping inside the city.

From May 1992 onwards, Serb forces attacked civilian areas of the city, resorting to shelling and sniping to wreck havoc on the population. Consequently, casualties mount. Between 1992 and 1995, more than 13,000 people had died, including 5,000 civilians. Much of the infrastructure in Sarajevo was damaged or destroyed, including religious buildings.

In early 1993, the Serb forces attacked the Cerska area in eastern BiH, forcing thousands of Bosniaks to flee to UN-declared ‘Safe Areas’.

A survival map provided by FAMA International that documented the Siege of Sarajevo and the disintegration of Yugoslavia.
A survival map provided by FAMA International that documented the Siege of Sarajevo and the disintegration of Yugoslavia [From David Rumsey Historical Map Collection]

Markale Market massacres
On 5 February 1994, the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) fired a 120mm mortal shell into the Markale marketplace in Sarajevo, killing 68 people and injuring almost 200. On the same day, the Bosnian Serb leadership blamed ‘authorities in Sarajevo’ of planting explosives to influence the international community to blame the Serbs for the atrocities. A UNPROFOR report revealed that about 40 projectiles were fired from Serbian positions around Sarajevo on that day.

On 28 August 1995, five mortar shells hit the Markele market, killing 43 and injuring at least 70. A 1999 report to the UN concluded that the VRS was responsible for the second attack as well.

Conclusion
In December 1995, the Dayton Agreement was signed, ending the Bosnian War. On 29 February 1996, the Bosnian government declared the end of the siege.

A map that illustrates the front lies around Sarajevo, highlighting areas controlled by the United Nations as well as the Serbs. [Map by BBC]

Join our JC History Tuition to learn more about the Bosnian War under the theme of Conflict and Cooperation. The H2 and H1 History Tuition feature online discussion and writing practices to enhance your knowledge application skills. Get useful study notes and clarify your doubts on the subject with the tutor. You can also follow our Telegram Channel to get useful updates.

We have other JC tuition classes, such as JC General Paper Tuition. For Secondary Tuition, we provide Secondary English Tuition, Secondary Math tuition, Secondary Chemistry Tuition, Social Studies Tuition, Geography, History Tuition and Secondary Economics Tuition. For Primary Tuition, we have Primary English, Math and Science Tuition. Call 8929 2422 to find out more.